The Patriot Film Analysis

The Patriot Film Analysis The Patriot is an American historical film starring Mel Gibson and directed by Roland Emmerich. It is set in South Carolina, one of the thirteen British colonies set in America. The film follows the story of a â€Å"Patriot† named Benjamin Martin. This character is a portrayal of American Revolution War hero Francis Marion. In the film Benjamin, is recognized as a war hero from the French and Indian War. However he has retired from a life of battle and is attempting to follow the virtues of pacifism, until his family becomes the target of war.After the death of Benjamin’s son and capture of another, he is thrown back into the life he thought he has left behind. The rest of the film portrays the drama and action that leads up to the climactic battle depiction of Battle of Cowpens and the victory of South Carolina in the Siege of Yorktown. Although the story of Benjamin is compelling and inspirational, it is based off of inaccurate historical ass umptions. The American Revolution portrayed in The Patriot was more about the war America wanted it be rather than what it was.The film glorifies American victories as well as American war heroes, while portraying â€Å"the redcoats† as sadistic, brutal, and abominable creatures. A perfect example of such bias is the film’s antagonist, Colonel William Tavington, who is a fictional representation of General Sir Banastre Tarleton. The film uses misconception and inaccuracy to portray the victory of America over the British, as a representation of a sanctified glory of angels over demons.The film starts with simple inaccuracies that can be excused, however these simple inaccuracies domino into great blunders that cannot be ignored: Some minor mistakes made by the film involve errors such as the materials used during the time period, do not actually belong to that time. For example in several action sequences of the film, weapons such as exploding projectiles or bombs are presented. Although canons were invented in this time period, none of the projectiles ever exploded (Canon link).Another flaw involves a major societal misunderstanding, when Benjamin goes to war, he sends his children to a slave colony for shelter, for which the slaves are honoured. In the Colonial Era, slave colonies, like the ones portrayed in the film, were secluded and protective from the â€Å"White colonists†. Therefore it was highly unlikely that a character such as Benjamin would send his children to a slave colony, let alone being treated kindly for doing so. One of the major inaccuracies is the slave and owner relationship portrayed by the film.For example during the colonists’ stand against the British Army the Continental Congress states an order. For any slave that serves â€Å"12 months† in the Colonial Army, will gain freedom and â€Å"5 schillings† per month served. When comparing this claim with other sources, it was discovered that no s uch claims were extended by the Continental Congress. Infact, The Patriot ignores slavery in total. Director Spike Lee was one of the many critics that were disappointed with the films inaccuracies. â€Å"For three hours The Patriot dodged around, skirted about or completely ignored slavery,† he wrote in a letter to The Hollywood Reporter. The Patriot is pure, blatant American Hollywood propaganda. A complete whitewashing of history. † (http://www. guardian. co. uk/film/2000/jul/06/news. spikelee) The director of the film, Roland Emmerich, misguides his audience into thinking that the British troops are monsters sent from hell. The film portrays the character of William Tavington as a merciless villain who commits intolerable atrocities. For example, a scene in the film depicts the redcoats gathering the entire village including women, children and unarmed men.They force all of them into a church for an interrogation about Benjamin, after which they lock the church from the outside and set the building on fire. Looking back into the American Revolution, such atrocities were never committed. Although the Sir Banastre Tarleton, portrayed by, William Tavington, is no saint, he wasn’t as evil as the film potrays him. A film critic and a historian, Stephen Hunter, told the Telegraph (magazine) that â€Å"Any image of the American Revolution which represents you Brits as Nazis and us as gentle folk is almost certainly wrong† (Cite this).The German director relates the actions committed by the Nazis in World War II, to those of British in the film. Another major flaw of the film is the protagonist, Benjamin Martin. The movie depicts Benjamin as symbol of goodness, a beacon of hope and a human vessel for an angel. However the character Benjamin Martin tries to portray Francis â€Å"Swamp Fox† Marion, a militia leader during the Revolution, from South Carolina. According to The Guardian, there were records of Marion persecuting and kil ling many Cherokee Indians.He hunted them as a source of entertainment and he raped many of his female slaves. However the movie simply depicts Benjamin Martin as the untainted hero. Finally the movie’s greatest flaw lies in its climatic battle, Battle of Cowpens. Where the tactics used by the militia were similar to that of the movie, however the results were nowhere in comparison of reality. During the Battle of Cowpens, militia was asked to play decoy. Although the film portrays General Nathanael Greene giving the orders, he was never present at this battle.The militia charged the battle, and after firing two shots retreated back to the hill, where the British troops were overwhelmed by the American Army. However the film portrays the militia firing more than two rounds before retrieval. Lieutenant-General Charles, Lord Cornwallis, commands his men to fire at the crowd of both British and American soldiers as a last resort to defeat America. However in reality Cornwallis n ever took such actions against his soldiers†¦ By: Ratna Emani

Human Trafficking Essay

Human trafficking, better known as modern day slavery, has existed within America ever since the government began to look at the world in shades of gray, and not judge people by race, religion, or gender. Thousands of Americans including women, men, and children are victims are human trafficking, and the questions in the minds of people everywhere are what exactly is taking place, why is it taking place, how is it taking place, and also who are the main targets and what can we do to help them. These innocent civilians are victims of something much bigger than just the faces sleeping on the street, selling drugs, and even worse selling their bodies. They are helpless beings of earth not criminals, and their human rights are being mentally, physically, and emotionally abused. â€Å"Combating human trafficking is going to require creativity and collaboration amongst government authorities, law enforcement, social services, academics, and victim advocates† (Thakur). Trafficking of humans seems to be this unrealistic, unheard of problem; however, it is not. â€Å"Cases of human trafficking have been reported in all 50 U.S. States† (National Human Trafficking Resource Center Report). Victims are recruited, transported, transferred, and harbored to America for the purpose of exploitation. They are forced to work in sweatshops, in houses as domestic slaves, farms, and for the commercial sex industry such as prostitution, escorts, and even in pornography. These are in nocent people that are forced to lessen themselves as people, and when law enforcement steps in, looked upon as criminals. Instead of the help and the therapy these beings of life so desperately need, they get throw into juvenile detention, which then forces them to endure more trauma to their lives than they already have been through. In cases like these, victim’s civil rights are completely taken out of the situation and tossed aside for â€Å"appropriate punishment†. Traffickers use particularly contradictive, deceptive ways to manipulate their victims to believe the false promises they propose. Some offer opportunities for a good job, education, or marriage. Since most of the victims happen to be children, the traffickers pose as a boyfriend, caretaker, or protector; however, if the victim refuses or denies, they will not hesitate to use force, threat, fraud, abduction, abuse of power, or even payments and benefits. â€Å"The vast majorities are sold through class ified ads on websites. The Attorney General’s office documented that underage girls were sold through these ads in at least 22 states† (Axtell). Vulnerability plays a huge role in trafficking. Traffickers tend to target younger children mostly because of their immaturity, gullibility, and vulnerability. McMahon 2 The risk in being caught as a trafficker deals with prison time or even death sentence, so is the risk and guilt of trafficking human beings worth all the trouble? â€Å"The National Human Trafficking Resource Center estimates it’s a $32 billion industry, with about 50% of this revenue coming from industrialized countries. This surpasses the sale of illegal arms† (Axtell). Basically, the traffickers are receiving free labor while making billions of dollars. Not to mention when demand is there, supply will follow, and there is an outrageous command for modern day slaves. Unfortunately, when an illegal industry grows so great, it takes an immense amount of time and patience to even get close to putting an end to it. Although it does seem like mission impossible to put an end to the misery, it can happen. Since authorities are beginning to see these people as victims and not criminals government programs are being created all the time. First off, they changed the law so ch ildren could not be incarcerated for their exploitation and abuse. Second, programs such as GEMS (girls education and mentoring service), and SHE (survivor healing and empowerment) are constantly providing support for victims of human trafficking. Stop Child Trafficking Now donated 21,060 dollars to help fund for the prevention of trafficking, and the 2012 Nation Walk raised 210,000 dollars. SCTNow has funded programs such as cyber teams, rescue centers, rehabilitation centers, and special investigation teams. â€Å"The cyber teams are talented, professional men McMahon 3 and women who make Internet pathways safe for children† (SCTNow). They identify and track down cyber predators who pose online as teenagers. Also, they keep all communities aware with the community investigative teams they fund as well. On top of funding programs to stop trafficking SCTNow focus a vast amount of energy of the effort on stopping the demand for human trafficking. With this entire desperate endeavor to stop the abuse on civil rights, one day it might just happen. Even though anyone can be trafficked, traffickers target vulnerable people. Factors that cause vulnerability include lack of opportunities, poverty, unemployment, abusive homes and young age. Although men, women and children are all defenseless, but young women are especially of interest because the traffickers force them into prostitution that financially benefits them. â€Å"At least 12.3 million people in the world are trafficked† (CRS). Out of the 12.3 million people trafficked, 1 million of th em were children alone; however, on average, only one person is convicted for every 800 trafficking cases worldwide. Not even one percent of the children victims are identified. Ages twelve to fourteen are the primary target for traffickers. Most of the young girls who end up in the sex trade come from dysfunctional, abusive homes and they just end up running away; however, some of the children do not have parents at all and have experienced an extremely rough life. They fall into the lies that the traffickers tell them. The traffickers paint them McMahon 4 a picture of a new, happy future, but more often than not they end up dead, an addict, or more miserable then before. In the United States, California has 3 of the FBI’s 13 highest child sex trafficking areas in the nation: Los Angeles, San Francisco, and San Diego. Modern day slavery, also known as human trafficking has torn apart families, taken away civil rights, caused mental, physical, and emotional damage, and killed innocent people. Ideas are held on why and how people do it, knowledge of who the victims are and what happens to them when in the possession of a trafficker, and the government and other programs are continuously doing the best they can to help prevent, stop, and save victims of human trafficking. â€Å"Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves† (Lincoln).

Evaluating the jury in the English legal system Essay

Evaluating the jury in the English legal system - Essay Example This paper attempts to comprehensively analyze the Jury present in the English legal system. It (paper) would examine the strengths and weaknesses of the jury, based on the current state of affairs. Also, the paper would go on to suggest the manner in which improvements can be brought about in this system (jury). Before proceeding further with the discussion on all the aspects mentioned in the previous paragraph, it would be of help in having a brief look at the jury, as it is seen in the English legal system. Jury Historically, the concept of jury has been there in the English legal system for nearly the past eight centuries. But it was only in the year 1670 that a jury having its distinct power and which is not dependent on the judge was formed. In the criminal cases, the jury comes to the decision whether or not the crime in question can be attributed to the defendant. Likewise, in the civil matters, the jury decides whether the claimant has come forward with proof strong enough t o strengthen their case. Here, the jury also arrives at a collective decision about the eligibility of the claimant to receive compensation. (1) As per the English Law, a person can become a part of the jury, only if they satisfy some conditions. Firstly, the age of the person should not be less than eighteen and more than seventy. To become part of a jury, it is imperative that the electoral roll has name of the person, and it is also required that they have been a resident of the United Kingdom for a minimum of five years, right from the time when they were thirteen. Here, it needs to be noted that persons who are directly related to the judiciary or the department of justice cannot be included in a jury. People who have developed any mental ailments are not eligible to get included in the jury, too. (1) At this point, it needs to be specifically mentioned that all the above are only the most vital points pertaining to jury of the English legal system. It has to be understood that there are several other laws and regulations governing the avenue (jury). As is the case with most of the systems, even the jury has both strengths and weaknesses, and the paper would now endeavor to have a look at them (strengths & weaknesses). Strengths There are several advantages of the jury system of the English Law, and a brief glance at some of the major ones (strengths) would be very much appropriate. Whenever a person accused of a crime is in a position that, despite being innocent the related legal aspects are very much against them, they can take the help of jury. And it is a matter of common sense that there are countless legal cases where, the points enumerated in the law books cannot be of help to the defendant in proving their innocence. (2) Likewise, the jury system can be conveniently rated as being a safeguard to the common man of the country, as it prevents the government from adopting an autocratic approach. To put it in other words, the jury makes sure that the government cannot imprison people solely for furthering its political objectives. A person can be jailed only when they are guilty of committing a crime, as per the British Law. The jury goes a long way in making sure that the citizens of the land are not victimized by the corrupt acts of judges. (2) One of the major advantages of the jury as per the English Law is that, it enables common people of the Kingdom to participate in the process of delivering justice. As a result of that, it can be safely concluded that, the eventual judgment is nothing but the common verdict of people pertaining to varying backgrounds. It (judgment) can in no way be the decision of just one official of the judiciary, courtesy the presence of jury system. In addition, the juries go a long way in making sure that the verdict delivered by them is free of ambiguity. They just need to decide whether the accused in question is innocent or guilty. (3) As mentioned earlier, the members of a jury come from diver se social backgrounds. Owing to

Modeling cancer biology Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Modeling cancer biology - Article Example In another example, Dr. Galit Lahav studies the tumour suppressor gene p53, both theoretically and experimentally. She feels that models will help biologists to predict the behaviour of the network in response to different treatments and also to experiment with new ideas (Cobb, p.19.). Dr. Zvia Agur’s model of three inter-connected modules of partial differential equations revealed that a single anti-angiogenesis drug is insufficient to eliminate a tumour and the clinical trials with Avastin monotherapy subsequently confirmed the results. Dr. Vito Quaranta’s experiments in modelling the invasion by cancer cells in collaboration with mathematician Dr. Alexander Anderson revealed that radiation, chemotherapy and normal drugs may actually accelerate the growth of cancer cells (p.22.). In Kristin Swanson’s opinion (as cited in Cobb, 2007), rather than using diagnostic MRI alone, if it is used along with her model simulating spread of glioma cells in brain tumour, it will be possible to predict survival with very reasonable accuracy for an individual patient (p.23.). The point that emerges out of these examples is the need for much more joint collaborative efforts of biologists and mathematicians. Initiatives like the â€Å"Integrative Cancer Biology Program (ICBP)† will help promote such collaboration. Quaranta feels that the mathematics-driven simulations will become more common and this will drastically alter methods of experimental oncology for the better (Cobb, p.24.). The article ends with a general feeling of optimism about a fast approaching new era in cancer

Commercialism in schools Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6250 words

Commercialism in schools - Research Paper Example However, a business can only assist a school by giving in a sustainable manner and this means that the ways in which businesses interact with schools ought to be creative, beneficial and useful for everyone. A business must earn, involve people in activities, try to expand economic activity and try to fulfill needs. Commercialism is the way of life in the United States of America and the world, but it is important to carry on with commercialism in a responsible manner to create and not to damage all those who are involved. Thus, despite the flawed schemes of the past, it is likely that business involvement in schools will continue in the future, with more creative and constructive schemes for interaction evolving with time. This study presents a critical discussion about commercialism in schools from a historical perspective and utilizes a process of examining reports presented over the years past about the commercialism in schools phenomenon. The 2002 Alex Molnar and Joseph Reeves Article presenting Systematic Data related to Growth of Schoolhouse Commercialism and the Assault on Educative Experience in Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 7 The Ninth Annual Report on Commercialism in Schools by Alex Molnar, Published by Arizona State University Commercialism in Education Research Unit on November 2006 12 Article Moving from Theory to Practice: One Teacher’s Journey towards a Commercial-Free Classroom by Cathy Hart, Published in Canadian Teachers Federation Newsletter, Volume 6, No. 3, 2006 19 The March 24, 2003 Article on Commercialism in Schools: A Moral Imperative for School Leaders by Tom Goodney, Published on March 24, 2003 by Miami University Initiative Anthology 20 Figure 3: Combined total Hits for Media

Ethics in Business Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethics in Business - Case Study Example Ethics and business rules always go together. The fact that business policing is based upon the different measures of complete recognition of social norms and social limitations, ethics is indeed a large part of the ways by which business organizations try to strive to be able to become more effective within their operational engagements with regards their aim of being able to influence the society as well. It is indeed certain that the rules and regulation that a business puts up should be able to meet certain standards of social compromises. Any business organization could not afford to be questioned simply because of the fact that the business procedures that they are adapting to are not meeting the set standards for business organizations. (Kuhn, 2005, 12) To be able to have a clearer view of the matter being reported herein, it is first most importantly to be given attention to as to how management is indeed in relation with the actual application of ethical standards within the society. To be able to do this, there are three major points to consider. The said points are as follows: †¢ The effect of organizational culture on ethical operation †¢ The roles and responsibilities of executive management in fostering an ethical operating environment †¢ The impact of ethical standards as they are used in business operations ... (Kuhn, 2005, 12) To be able to have a clearer view of the matter being reported herein, it is first most importantly to be given attention to as to how management is indeed in relation with the actual application of ethical standards within the society. To be able to do this, there are three major points to consider. The said points are as follows: The effect of organizational culture on ethical operation The roles and responsibilities of executive management in fostering an ethical operating environment The impact of ethical standards as they are used in business operations Through the consideration given to these particular sections of the said matter, the continuous advancement of the report shall be completed as to how it could relate to the actual practice of several business organizations who are actually applying ethical management in creating the policies for their own businesses. The Essence of Organizational Management Organizational management involves several serious tasks that concern not only the whole company but also its stakeholders. This is the reason why the need for the fine application of ethical leadership is essential for the pursuance of rightful managerial policing processes. Management, as known to many is a performed function in every organizational set up that is essential for arranging the activities of certain business groups. The said act of organizing a business group indeed requires a high level of leadership skills. As for this reason, governance then is considered a responsibility that demands effort and patience in dealing with other people (Humes-Schulz, 2002, 15). As the present human

Clinical objectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Clinical objectives - Essay Example Beyond the immediate result, consequences of behavioral health violence lost productivity because of low morale and high medical costs resulting from treating the injuries. Some healthcare workers rationalize behavioral health violence as an occupational hazard and believe that measures need to be taken to cope with it. Nursing working on behavioral setting need take some measures to prevent such occurrences. It can be through medication, restraining the patient, and seclusion. Even though these methods are effective in the short term, they can also be used in the long term to change the patients’ behavioral patterns. Other methods include leaving the door open and making sure that there security to nurses when they are dealing with violent patients. Finally, an increase in the level of violence among patients towards nurses is closely associated with a decrease in the number of permanent nursing staff. One theory states that patients become violent because they are in need of continuity and stability around them (Richter, 2006). Behavioral health violence is widespread among Americans of all ages. It can be prevented by medication, restraining the patient, seclusion, and giving them attention and a stable environment. Other safety measures that can be taken by nurses include leaving the door open and making sure that there security to nurses when they are dealing with violent

The Religion of Christianity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Religion of Christianity - Essay Example Aeneas is the center character of Vigil’s Latin epic The Aeneid, a legendary story of a Trojan (Aeneas) who traveled to Italy and became the ancestor of Romans. Aeneas is depicted as an ideal and one of the great epic heroes. He was one of the few survivors of the Trojan War and an ancestor of the Roman emperor Augustus. He had guided the men through the perils of uncharted waters, and other adversities to their destined land that was supposed to become Rome someday. Aeneas has been endorsed with the characteristics, which were highly idealized during Vigil’s time in Rome. These virtues were piety or faith in the will of God, courage, determination, skilled warrior ship and inspiring leadership. Aeneas reflected the personification of the heroic origins of Rome and a flawless hero. Conventionally a young student should read Julius Caesar, Cicero, Ovid and Catullus before reading Aeneid. The character of Aeneas should be studied and understood by the young Roman students mainly to understand the virtuous Roman ancestory and the values of a great leader that one should find in Aeneas. Piety or reverence for Gods was one of the values highlighted in the epic through the character of Aeneas who sent prayers and sacrifices to the gods and asked for assistance. It also reflected the devotion and the power of the gods who helped in the creation of Rome. Through the role of Aeneas Vigil showed how prayers worked and disrespectful (towards the will and power of gods) people are punished. For an instance during the war between Aeneas and Mezentius, Aeneas’ prayers to Apollo gets answered by his victory while Mezentius who claimed not to care for or fear gods has to face death. Aeneas’ sacrifices of the cow and sucklings to Juno, prayers to Jupiter before killing Remulus, all reflect his utter dedication and faith. At times the reader may feel that he was too much into the sacrifices and prayers but the connection between profound faith and success is established – a faith that was embedded in the tradition of Rome and hence the young generation also needs to remember that.

Famine in Third World States Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Famine in Third World States - Essay Example But the countries of Africa are still dying of hunger. Why is that The main myth is that there is insufficient amount of foodstuffs produced in the country. But the fact is that the planet produces enough food to provide every individual with 3,500 calories every day. The problem is that many people are too poor to buy food, though even the poorest countries possess sufficient agricultural lands, and even export their products. In 1974 an outstanding philosopher Robert Nozick has created his theory of 'entitlement', which was outlined in his work 'Anarchy, state, utopia'. The main point of the theory is that the rights of an individual are sacred, and alienation of the property must be voluntary. He has acknowledged the necessity of the 'minimal state' which would deprive individuals the right of violence, but at the same time it would protect them from tyranny. Nozick was sure that any attempt to regulate the process of the property transfers is doomed to fail. The state must not dictate any redistribution of wealth, which can be presented in tax system. Nozick has absolutely rejected any idea of a 'social state'. It has always been easy to make nature guilty in people suffering from famine. But it should be remembered that only the poorest layers of the society suffer from hunger, though the nature is the same for everyone. The roots of the problem lie in politics, which makes effectiveness the corner-stone, and not sympathy. People are deprived of the right to earn enough money, they are made starve, thus becoming ready to give away their labor force for the minimal payment. The growth of population is also considered a problem. But it is interesting that active growth of population has never been a problem to developing countries. Such problem appears only in those countries where ineffective political system deprives people equal access to education, medicine, workplaces and social guarantees. According to Nozick, all actions of individuals must be voluntary, and here we see an absolutely different situation: the politics of the starving countries is consciously directed at depriving people of all possible rights. In the countries of the third world land belongs to large owners, who often appear to be ineffective in terms of business. The world experience shows, that small farmers receive 4-5 times larger crops than big farmers do. But in poor countries the inner policy is directed at concentrating all the land in the hand of few owners, thus giving people no right for equal access to land and its products. Nozick was the supporter of the idea that all individuals must have free access to all resources and he also bore an idea of the free market with minimal limitations. But I should say, that to my mind, the idea of free market have never solved the problem of famine. The formula 'free market is good, government is bad' has never helped with eliminating famine in third world states. In every state government is occupied with the redistribution of resources. In this problem authorities must help consumers, especially the poorest ones, with the help of tax preferences, grants, and credits. In such situation the state and the population supplement each other thus creating an

Bushido & Kagekiyo Essay Example for Free

Bushido Kagekiyo Essay Through his Kagekiyo, a Noh Play, playwright Martin Burke describes events that reflect the Japanese Samurai Bushido spirit especially through the character called Kagekiyo. For example, according to the Bushido concept, warriors were supposed to demonstrate fearlessness and athletic prowess, an aspect that is explicit through Kagekiyo’s actions. To illustrate, Kagekiyo faces the advancing Genji warriors head-on, thus successfully leading his Heike platoon in vanquishing their opponents. This act demonstrates bravery and an athletic spirit. Further, according to the Bushido tradition, persons are supposed to demonstrate an inclination to leading a frugal life. Likewise, Burke describes Kagekiyo as living like a somewhat anonymous beggar in Hiuga’s Miyazaki area. The warrior thus demonstrates wisdom in trying to erase all the past historic events that he was previously involved in. Kagekiyo realizes that he cannot realistically live on such past honor. Conversely, Bushido requires people to demonstrate honesty and kindness. Kagekiyo thus demonstrates compassion for Hitomaru his daughter by not rudely sending her away. The father even heeds to the daughter’s pleas that he narrates his past war stories. To demonstrate honesty, Kagekiyo owns up that his life is beyond repair and that he does not want this issue to unnecessarily antagonize his daughter. Bushido spirit is thus evident through the behavior that Kagekiyo depicts. Conversely, Haiku a Japanese poetry development method was eventually assimilated into the Bushido culture. I am of the view that a number of notable Haiku characteristics facilitated such assimilation. For example, Haiku generally demonstrates internal sufficiency and independence with regard to context. It can thus stand alone as an autonomous literary work. Since Bushido advocated for internal competence and independence, a similarity between the 2 entities is evident. Such similarity thus possibly pushed for the adoption of Haiku into the Bushido tradition. Work Cited Higginson, William J. and Harter, Penny. The Haiku Handbook, How to Write, Share, and Teach Haiku. Tokyo Japan: Kodansha, 1989

Motivation theories used to explain turnover intention

Motivation theories used to explain turnover intention This chapter discussed the used of motivation theory to explain the turnover intention or behavior amongst the auditors in Sabah. Besides, turnover intention the dependent variable, job satisfaction and organizational commitment the independent variables are being defined and conceptualized in line with this study. The relevant literature or past research done on this area of study is also being reviewed. Lastly, the findings on the relationships between the variables are being discussed. 2.1 Theory 2.1.1 Theory of Reasoned Action Turnover process models draw heavily from rational decision making models such as Fishbein and Ajzens (1980) theory of reasoned action, which stresses the importance of behavioral intentions in predicting and understanding turnover. However, there is research on the manner on which attitudes and intentions get translated into behavior that can inform turnover theory and research. Examples include research on perceptions of behavior control, behavior consistency, and the role of emotional arousal. For the purpose of this study, Perceived Behavioral Control is usedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. 2.1.1.1 Perceived Behavioral Control Many prominent models of the turnover process implicitly or explicitly use elements of Fishbein and Ajzens (1980) Theory of Reasoned Action. This theory and its evolution into the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) suggest that intentions to perform a behavior are the more immediate precursors to actual behavior. Intentions are a function of attitudes toward performing the behavior, which are in turn a function of beliefs concerning the consequences and desirability of such consequences of performing the behavior, and subjective norms concerning the behavior, which are a function of beliefs concerning what important referents think about the behavior and ones motivation to comply with those referents. A good deal of empirical research has supported this model, especially the critical role of intentions (Kim and Hunter, 1998). Individuals that having the behavior intention not necessary execute the intention in reality, which introduce the importance of the role of behavioral control. Ajzen (1991) defined control beliefs as the presence or absence of factors that may facilitate or impede the performance of a behavior. Perceived behavioral control is an individuals perceptions of their ability to perform a behavior based on control beliefs. Behavioral control is expected to reinforce behavioral intentions through increased perseverance and consideration of potential obstacles (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). In fact, Ajzen (1991) argues that behavior is a function of compatible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control should moderate the effect of intentions on behavioral control is positive. Thus, in a turnover context, turnover intentions may only lead to turnover when individuals perceive that they have control over the decision to quit. There are a number of reasons that individuals might perceive less control over this decision. Family or financial constraints could restrict mobility. Over time, individuals become increasingly invested in an organization, making it more difficult to leave (Becker, 1960). Perceptions of the availability and quality of alternatives may affect perceived control. There is some evidence perceptions of alternatives interact with job satisfaction in leading to withdrawal (Jacofsky et al, 1986). Steel et al recently suggested that barriers to mobility are critical components of labor market cognitions. However, turnover researches do not typically directly measure perceived behavioral control over turnover decisions and have not assessed control as a potential moderator of the relationship between turnover intentions and turnover. Behavioral control should moderate the intentions-turnover relationship such that the relationship is stronger when control is higher, and weaker when control is lowest. 2.1.2 Role Theory For the purpose of study, role theory is used to explain the role stress experienced by the auditors. Role theory assumes that individuals lives are spent acting out an assortment of roles both within and outside the organizational context (Fisher, 2001). As cited by Fisher (2001), Katz and Kahn explained that each of these roles is assumed to be more a function of social setting rather than of the individuals own personality characteristics. Therefore, Fisher (2001) suggested that every position within an organization can be thought of as a specific role into which an individual is socialized. Under the role episode model, the process of socialization happens when a role senders directly or indirectly communicating to the role incumbent (focal person) their expectations of the incumbents responsibilities. Role ambiguity exits when goals of ones job or methods of performing it are unclear (Johns et al, 2007). Scholars Johns et al (2007) further explained that there are three elements that can lead to ambiguity, which are (1) the organizational factors, for example the middle management might fail to provide the big picture as they are not in the upper management level; (2) the role sender, for example role senders have unclear expectations of a focal person, or the message is not effectively communicate between a role sender and a focal person; (3) the focal person, as a new staff need time to fully digest the work expectation communicated to him. On the other hand, role conflict occurs when compliance with one sent role would compliance with another difficult (Cited by Fisher (2001) from Kahn et al, 1964). Kahn et al (1964) identify five major types of role conflict as below:- 1) Intra-sender conflict conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from the same sender 2) Inter-sender conflict conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from different sender 3) Inter-role conflict conflict between roles in situations where an individual holds more than one role 4) Person-role conflict where an individuals role requirements are incompatible with hus/her own beliefs, values and norms 5) Role-overload reasonable expectations may have been received from role senders, but he/she may not have enough time to address them all (Cited from Fisher (2001) review on Kahn et al (1964) research work) Scholars Van Sell at al (1981), Jackson and Schuler (1985) observed that both role ambiguity and role conflict are linked to negative outcomes, such as lower job satisfaction, increase on perceived job tension, lower job performance and greater turnover intention. 2.2 Conceptualization of Dependent Variable Turnover refers to resignation from an organization (Lee and Liu, 2006; Johns et al, 2007). Turnover can be classified as internal and external, voluntary or involuntary (Wiley, 1993). By internal turnover, it means that an employee is transferred to another department within the same company or group of companies. On the other hand, external turnover refers to the resignation of an employee permanently and henceforth represents the cost outflow to an organization. Wiley (1993) further explained that involuntary turnover happens when an employee is terminated for just caused, for example: sickness, death, retirement due to old age; and voluntary turnover is a situation whereby the employee join another organization on his/her accord, or participate in the voluntary separation scheme. Employee is the human capital of an organization (Quote). Employees have become the important tangible asset in an organization in this new k-knowledge world, especially within the service industry. Successful and established companies such as Virgin Airline and Honda have invested substantial amount on their employees in term of training and development cost, aiming to shape their employees to maintain the competitive edge. Henceforth, an employee departure is considered a nightmare to an organization especially with the highly skilled employees such as the IT specialist and audit managers. Not only the organization is unable to recover the training cost (Quote), they also lose their competitive advantage when the highly experienced and skilled employees join another competitor firm. High turnover also experienced in the unskilled position such as in the manufacturing plant and hotel line due to the low replacement cost for unskilled employees. The ease of replacing employees for th e lower rank staff no doubt will not cause substantial loss to an organization, but will affect the service or product quality as the new employees are unfamiliar with the organizations culture and work procedures. As a result of the significance of these costs, employees turnover has been widely studied since the 1900s with the various publications of qualitative and quantitative researchers of exceeding 1500 (Munchinsy and Morrow, 1980). Given the significance of the study, the determinants of turnover intention is widely studied in various industries, such as the hotelier (Atang, 2010), manufacturing (Udo et al, 1007), teachers (Currivan, 2000) information system (IT) (Rahman, 2008; Muliawan et al, 2009) and among public accountants or auditors (Lander et al, 1993; Perryer et al, 2010; Reed et al, 1994; Viator, 2001; Law, 2005; Lui et al, 2001; Hsieh et al, 2009; Hasin and Omar, 2007). The reasons for voluntary turnover are numerous and the list of determinants is still expanding. The most common reasons given by leavers are due to job dissatisfaction, lacking of career growth opportunities, poor relationship between supervisor and subordinate, to name a few. Khatri et al (2001) studied high turnover in Asian countries with sample size of 422 taken from food and beverage industry, shipping and marine industry and retailing industry suggested that the main reasons for high turnover were procedural justice and low org anizational commitment. The researchers also reported that managers had more turnover intention than non-managers and procedural justice was considered more important than the distributive justice, while organizational commitment was found to be very critical in turnover intention. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment and intention to leave are among the most commonly proposed antecedents to turnover (Tett and Meyer, 1993). The reasons of having turnover intention might vary based on individualistic (Atang, 2010). The recent research noted that researchers used other new variables sust as employees personality (Dole and Schroeder, 2001; Hsieh et al, 2009), hardiness (Law, 2005), gender (Reed et al, 1994) and organizational tenure (Udo et al, 1997) to determine the moderating effect on the turnover intention. It is observed that there are not many research done in the local setting and hence it is doubtful that if those results obtained from the Western countries can be generalized in Asia, in particular, Malaysia. Henceforth, the primary focus of this study is to examine the relationship between role stress and job satisfaction towards turnover intention amongst the auditors in Sabah, using organizational commitment as mediating variable. In the academic writing, most of the research that focus on employee turnover used direct determinant of turnover, intent to stay (Iverson, 1992; Price 1997) or turnover intention (Perryer et al, 2010; Hsieh et al, 2009; Rahman et al, 2008) to predict turnover as the data of actual turnover is typically hard to collect. Intent to stay (or leave) is defined as employees behavioral intention that has been found to have a strong negative influence on actual turnover (Iverson, 1992). A link between behavioural intentions and behavior has been well documented in the social psychological literature (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), as has a link between turnover intentions and turnover (Irvine and Evans, 1995; Richer et al, 2002; Tett and Meyer, 1993). Richer at al (2002) further commented that most employees having the intention to leave their job would most likely to quit if they have the choice. Other researchers agreed that behavioral intention is the most determinant of actual behaviour (Aj zen and Fishbein, 1980; Steel and Ovalle, 1984) and Rasch and Harrell (1990) further commented that there is positive relationships exist between intention to leave and turnover behaviour. The finding that turnover intention is the strongest predictor of turnover is similarly consistent (Meyer at at., 2002; Tett and Meyer, 1993). The turnover intention for this present study will be conceptualized as the having the intention or behavior to leave the organization voluntary (Atang, 2010). Based on the above discussion, turnover intention would be used interchangeable with Intent to stay (or leave). 2.3 Independent variables For the purpose of this study, role stress and job satisfaction are chosen as the independent variables that are most representing determinants in influencing the turnover intention amongst auditors in Sabah. 2.3.1 Role Stress Role stress is identified as stressors at individual level (Ivancevich et al, 2008) and has now becomes the focus point of the Organizational Behavior and Management study due to the importance of having a quality work-life balance. Under role theory (as explained in Section 2.1), stress can arise from a particular role episode when sent roles conflict with each other, or when information required to effectively carry out a sent role is lacking (Fisher, 2001). These situations are known as role ambiguity and role conflict. A role is a set of expectations on individual behavior due to his/her position in an organization (Lee, 1996). Role ambiguity and role conflict are typically viewed as a consequence of audit structure practice (Wittayapoom and Mahasarakham, 2007). The definition of role ambiguity and role conflict are thoroughly examined as below:- 2.3.1.1 Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity happens when an individual is unclear about the expectations or requirements of his/her job (Hitt et al, 2006). This includes ambiguity on the methods to be used, how performance is evaluated, an individuals responsibility and also the limits of ones authority (Johns et al, 2007). Black (1988) stated that role ambiguity happens when there is a lack of the necessary information available to a given organizational position. Smith (1990) in his review on Senatras (1988) study noted that 70 percent and 47 percent of reported role ambiguity in men and women respectively was attributed to organizational factors, such as adequacy of authority to make decisions and formalization of firm policies. Ambiguity on the audit work creates tension and anxiety, and hence leads to emotional stress, as employees are unclear of the expectations. Many of audit juniors experience role ambiguity, as they are unfamiliar with the work procedures and companys culture. Besides, different audit e nvironment warrants different attention from the audit staff, for example, the audit of a financial institute is different from auditing a non-profit organization. Henceforth, a new comer would easily feel lost and frustrated if there is no proper guidance and this might affect his/her work commitment or trigger the turnover intention. Vaitor (2001) in his research finding on public accounting organizations in United States concluded that informal mentors do indeed help to reduce role ambiguity among the audit staff. Ambiguity tends to decrease as length of time in the job role increases (Jackson and Schuler, 1985, as cited by Johns et al, 2007). 2.3.1.2 Role Conflict Role conflict is termed as the degree of incongruity or incompatibility of expectations associated with the role (House and Rizzo, 1972; Johns et al, 2007). Atang (2010) stated that employees perceive a role conflict when there is incompatibility between expectations and demands from various workgroups and conflicting role to be carried out by individual employee. Katz and Kahn (1978) explained in detail that conflict is the simultaneous occurrence of two or more role sending such that agreement with one party would make more difficult for the agreement of another (see details on Section 2.1 on role theory). For example, auditor A is assigned to work on an outstation assignment by his direct supervisor, but is requested to attend a training course as requested by the human resource manager for the same working week. Hence, auditor A is said having a role conflict. Viator (2001) suggested two types of role conflict that is relevant in the accounting practice, namely the inter-sender, which occur when the expectations of one role sender are in conflict with another role senders; and the person-role conflict, which happen when the role requirements violate the needs, capacities or beliefs of the individual (Viator, 2001). Sorenson and Sorenson (1974) operationalized role conflict as conflict between an auditors professional and bureaucratic orientations. Role conflict is arguably more severe experienced with female due to the society perception that woman is the primary care-givers (Law, 2010). For example, married women with first-born children are expected to stay in-house to nurse the baby, while her career may become less priority. This perception would cause stress to career women today who valued their job above all. The significance of role conflict is discussed in Smith (1990) studies in his review on Senatras (1988) research work, which stated that organizational stressors accounted for 64 percent of the reported role conflict among males, 79 percent among females. The factors that resulted in role conflict for both man and female that identified in the study are excessive job and time pressures, conflicting objectives, and suppression of relevant information (Senatra(1988) as cited by Smith (1990) studies). 2.3.1.3 Empirical Evidence of Role Stress in the Accounting Profession As cited by Fisher (2001), Senatra (1980) was the first study in the accounting literature to examine the sources of role stress with public accounting firms. Senatra identified ten specific elements of the organizational climate of the public accounting firms in which he hypothesized would affect perceptions of role ambiguity and role conflict, which were(1) violations in the chain of command; (2) formalization of firm rules and procedures; (3) emphasis on subordinate personnel development; (4) tolerance of error; (5) top-management receptiveness to ideas and suggestions; (6) adequacy of work coordination; (7) timeliness of superiors responses to problems; (8) information suppression by superiors and subordinates; (9) adequacy of authority; (10) adequacy of professional autonomy. Using a survey of 88 senior accountants, Senatra (1980) concluded that violations in the chain of command tends to increase both role ambiguity and role conflict. For the purpose of this study, role ambiguity is defined as the lack of clear and precise information regarding what is expected of the role incumbent (Muliawan et al, 2009), which is important to perform the job (Rizzo et al, 1970). Role conflict refers to occasions when an individual receives conflicting information or requests (Muliawan et al, 2009) when there is incompatibility between expectations and demands from various workgroups (Harris et al, 2006).