Theories of Learning for Classrooms

Theories of Learning for Classrooms Learning is the process that results in a relatively enduring change in a person or persons (Alexander et al, 2009: 186). Learning is a dynamic process whereby the students knowledge and skills are different before to after learning (Winn, 1990). Teaching is by definition the promotion of learning and ought therefore to be informed by the best of our knowledge about learning. Learning and teaching poses a synergistic relationship; that is teachers need to teach with an approach that reinforces how students naturally learn (Muijs brooks book). A number of educational researchers offer learning paradigms to explain how individuals learn. The way students learn can be used to foster effective teaching practices, and ultimately align teaching with positive learning and educational experiences. Understanding how knowledge is developed and comprehended can allow teachers to shape the methodological delivery of their subject content to match the theoretical frameworks, underpinning how knowledge is processed. Attending to the nature of student learning can allow teachers to improve their practice and in turn the quality of the learners experience (Macleod Golby, 2003). The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represented by the Behaviourist and Constructivist theories of learning. Behaviouristic Theory of Learning Learning, according to behaviourists (Watson, Pavlov), is defined as acquisition of new behaviour. The focus of behaviourism is on the conditioning of observable human behaviour and is based on the principal conception that a reaction is made in response to a specific stimulus. This reaction leads to a consequence. If the consequence is pleasant and positive, the behaviour change becomes reinforced. With consistent reinforcement, the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned and is automatically activated upon stimuli presentation. Physiologically, behaviourist theories propose that learning is achieved through reinforcement of a particular neural pathway, which links the stimuli and response in the brain. This activation and reinforcement results in a faster, smoother implementation of certain reactions and responses. The connections between the stimuli and specific responses are built correctly and then reinforced over time through practise and repetition, which ultimately strengthens the neural pathways, resulting in a more efficient response to the stimuli. (Pritchard). Behaviourists term this form of learning conditioning, whereby with consistent reinforcement the behaviour pattern becomes conditioned. Classical conditioning involves the reinforcement of a natural reflex or behaviours which occur naturally as a response to a specific stimulus. In contrast, operant conditioning involves reinforcing a behaviour by praising it, or discouraging undesirable behaviour with punishment. The rewarding phases of this conditioning processing is known as reinforcement. However, this stimulus-response relationship discounts any mental processes which may be involved in learning. Researchers, including Vygotsky 1962 amongst others, began to criticise the behaviourist approach, as it was seen too teacher centred and directed, void of meaningful learning and the teacher process was focused too much on individual rather than collaborative group work. In addition, the constructivist perspective challenged the implied separation between mental processing and knowledge, which had to be bridged by the role of a teacher. Constructivist Theory The constructivist movement was formed on Piagets (1976) and Vygotsky (1986) work who view learning as the effect of mental construction, whereby learners combine their existing knowledge with new information, to construct meaning and formulate their understanding. The constructivist theory proposes that learning is an active process, a social activity, contextual, centred on constructing meaning and regards the learner as a responsible agent in their knowledge acquisition (Loyens 2007. In constructivist learning, individuals draw in their experience of the world around them and work to make sense of what they perceive in order to build an understanding of what is surrounding them (Harris, 1994). Since constructivism involves learners to interact with their immediate learning environment, learning has been considered to be situation-specific and context-bound activity (McInerney and McInerney, 2002. Constructivism is an umbrella term to encompass the wide range of constructivist perspectives, which can be separated into two branches; cognitive constructivism (Piaget, 1976) and social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1986). Both sub-types believe that knowledge is actively constructed by individuals Birenbaum 2003, however through the use of different mediums; either through a series of internal, intellectual stages (cognitive constructivism), or by social interaction including interactions with world based, external experiences (social constructivism). The numerous perspectives on constructivism within these two sub-types could be essentially grouped around a rooted assumption about learning. That is, knowledge is actively constructed by the learner (Birenbaum 2003; Harris and Alexander 1998) Piagets developmental stages theory, which represents cognitive constructivism, presents four age-referenced development stages which provide a theory of gradual cognitive development up to the age of eleven years old. The stages refer to an explicit age range and characterise the cognitive abilities necessary at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment. Social constructivism emphasises the role of language in the process of intellectual development. Vygotsky considered dialogue, usually but not always with a more knowledgeable other, as a vehicle by which concepts are considered, shared and developed. The dialogue, which is based on learners pre existing and current knowledge (schemas), is then exploited to develop and construct new ideas and understanding. Vygotsky advocates that the process of learning involves moving into and across a zone of proximal development, which is aided by the intervention of another through support. The zone of proximal development is a theoretical space of understanding which is just above the level of an individuals current understanding. The process of giving support to learners at the appropriate time and level of sophistication to meet the individual needs is termed scaffolding. Scaffolding can allow the movement from one zone to another and assists in the passing through the zone of proximal devel opment. From reviewing the literature, educational researchers which employ these constructivist principles select aspects from both strands of this learning theory (Biggs, 1979, Cunningham, 1996), and use constructivist theories as a generalised term. However, as Mathews and Lui highlight, combining the plethora of constructivist variants is questionable, and generalisations made may have less significance and loss of meaning. Therefore, for the purpose of this assignment, the term constructivism will reflect a collaboration of both social and cognitive strands; however specific branches and the implications of these strands are highlighted where necessary. Critique of learning theories and associated implications upon classroom practice A review of the literature suggests that behaviouristic learning does not offer students the chance to develop deep meaning and understanding (Einworth and Collins), but instead has a tendency to promote superficial learning of skills (Fosnot, 1996). Making a correct response and remembering content does not necessarily imply understanding, and consequently the actual understanding achieved through behavioural approaches is challenged. Hounsell, Entwistle, 1997 conclude that the use of rote memorisation represents a learning approach to a surface level of understanding, whilst establishing connections with current knowledge reflects an approach for a deeper level of understanding. In contrast, from a constructivist perspective, the principle of learning using prior experience is beneficial in promoting a deeper and richer understanding (Pressley, Harris Marks, 1992). Demerici advises that information which is connected to a learners prior experiences is more likely to be retained, explaining higher retention rates when a constructivist approach is adopted. (Demirici). According to Fosnot, the focus of attention in constructivist perspective is concept development and deeper understanding. This research suggests that constructivist approaches lead to a great, richer and deeper understanding. It is therefore plausible to suggest that the quality and depth of understanding associated to a constructivist teaching approach is more likely to exceed that of the behaviourist approach. However, as Entwhistle and Smith (2002) identify, the association between memorisation and surface approach may be weak. Kember, 1996; Watkins Biggs, 1996 reported that memorisation can be used to learn unfamiliar terminology, as the first stage to establishing understanding. This concept, where memorisation is part of meaningful learning, is defined as memorising with understanding (Marton, Watkins,Tang, 1997; Meyer, 2000, and has been conducted by students as a successful revision tool (Entwistle Entwistle, 2001) In addition, (Smith, 2001, 2002a) affirms that rote learning can contribute to understanding. Therefore, it appears that behaviouristic learning approaches can be beneficial for certain tasks such as establishing classroom behaviour (Fulton). Teachers could consider deploying beahviorusitlic approaches to the learning of classroom behaviour, especially for pupils who display anxious tendencies and low motivation (Prittard; Fulton). Those of higher academic ability perceive simplistic drill and practice unsatisfying and dull (Prittard). In addition, some students demand understanding, yet adhering to behaviouristic learning approaches does not accommodate this craving. In other situations, the concepts of learning without understanding can fuel frustration, lead to misconceptions and generate a difficult learning environment (Prittard). Controversially, Fox (2001) suggests that the constructivist theory may imply that remembering is not important, and that learning is solely centred on understanding concepts. However, neither of these are true, and being able to remember knowledge is an important prerequisite of learning. In addition, Biggs, (1998) and Jin and Ortazzi, (1998) have reported that constructivist teaching approaches dont consistently guarantee teaching effectiveness. Instead, traditional, more behaviourist approaches to learning in large classes has proven to be successful internationally, such as in China. Fox, 2001, argues that constructivism neglects the role of memorisation and mechanical learning techniques Arguably, due to the varying nature of meaning which is uncontrollably constructed by students, in some cases, rote learning and memorisation may be more useful when teaching factual concepts and where clarity in understanding is required. Rote learning may be used to help students cope better with some aspects of work that they find difficult. However, teachers must consider that rote learning is not an approach to develop understanding and therefore where possible, should be followed by attempts to encourage understanding. Standard school and classroom routines and expectations for behaviour can be learnt through behaviouristic approaches. In the case of behaviour management, a strategy to quieten the class, such as raising of the hand, or counting down from three could be effectively used. In this case, the stimulus, such as the teacher raising their hand or calling out the number three, must be fully explained to the class. In addition, the stimuli must be fully visible and audible to the students, which is possible with a clearly risen hand or an assertive voice. The response desired, such as a student raising of the hand and silence, must be fully understood by students. It is important that the stimulus-response occurrence should be repeated by the teacher and used regularly. The same strategy should be employed every time the teacher wants to quieten the class, establishing consistency of stimuli and behavioural response. This repeated activation strengthens the pathways, affording for a smoother and faster implementation of the response. . Pupils should be made aware of the negative and positive consequences if they do not respond to the stimuli as desired and the consequences need to be kept consistent. Therefore, consistency of behaviour management strategies is crucial and classroom practice must adhere to the same strategise as the same stimuli is presented for a specific response. Behaviourism relies on reinforcement which is employed to condition the behaviour, and therefore is essentially the tool which brings about learning. Therefore rewards and punishments for behaviours must play a crucial role and actively administered within classroom practice. Behaviourism may therefore stimulate and encourage more use of positive reinforcement which has been a long standing effective classroom practice (Elliott and Busse, 1991 fulton book). However teachers must consider that rewarding children who are already highly motivated may not be as effective, and may actually lead to a loss of interest (Fulton) Rewards and praise have been shown to enhance motivation, and serve as an effective behaviour management tool, however, praising students may not come naturally to teachers. However, behaviourist approaches dont take account of mental cognitive processing involved in learning. In contrast, constructivism emphasises that the learners must develop their understanding for themselves and constructivist researchers advocate that mental activity is the lifeblood of learning and the extent of what is learnt (Howe 1999). Teachers cannot assume that the products of learning are solely the teachers effort and thought; instead learning requires effort on the part of the learner. Teachers need to offer scope of activities where the accustomed effort and activity falls on the learners responsibility. Such opportunities would afford learner engagement and optimise the possibility of effective lasting learning taking place (Prittard). A vast array of supportive literature endorses the success of constructive approaches. Research informs that learning through such constructive mediums, like discussion, participation, practice, are successful and associated with learning gains and knowledge retention. Demirci Yavuz (2009). Dericimi also reported a significant difference in post-test grades and retention learning tests grades, with the constructivist approach being more efficient than the conventional, behaviouristic approach. However, the constructivist theory may imply that all individual differences in learning come down to the consequences of each learners history of learning )Loyens, 2008. Furthermore, although we do learn by acquiring knowledge from our environments through interacting with the external world, Fox highlights that the environment also acts upon learners. That is, we act and react and learning can be achieved from both experiences. However, constructivism appears to fail to acknowledge adaptive instinctive responses as reactive forms of learning (Fox, 2001) and the role of talent in cognitive development. Furthermore, Fox (2001) and Bredo, (2000) argues that constructivism discounts the role of innate, motivational and genetic factors in knowledge construction, which have been proven to play a role in cognitive development and ealrning Carey Spelke, 1994). Another assumption refers to an epistemological assumption that students actively seek resources and experiences, which are anchored by their pre-existing knowledge. In addition, it is assumed that learners utilise the construed data to actively construct their knowledge (Renkl). Therefore, this approach to learning relies on students encountering experiences and applying these experiences to their pre-existing knowledge to develop their understanding. However, such experiences and world-based interactions may not be feasible or available to students due to their lifestyle circumstances. Consequently, teachers need to be aware that understanding and meaning is limited to the individual experiences of the students. In accordance with this assumption, the constructivist theory can explain why pupils conceptions and meaning do vary between each other (Taber, 2000). Given that learning is achieved through the constructing activity of the student, the individual can only understand or kno w what he or she has constructed (Dunn and Cunningham, 1996). Therefore, constructivism may be seen as subjective and relative (Duffy and Cunningham, 1996).. This may lead to marking criteria discrepancies, confusion and inconsistency, and student misconceptions, which do not match reality. In addition, Duffy and Cunningham propose that if the constructions and meanings are different amongst students, the little shared understanding may challenge the ease of communication between learners and the class. This may jeopardise the effectiveness of class discussions and social interactions as a tool to enhance learning. Similarly, as construction is activity on part of the learner (Bruner 1966, 1971), what is constructed cannot be controlled by the teacher. Instead the learner has autonomy and self-regulates what understanding is established. Therefore the students constructed understanding may not parallel with other students, with reality or with the teachers construction and understanding. Consequently, teachers must not assume that the construction and understanding of a concept is universal between all students. Instead teachers must actively access and consider the alternative perceptions and understanding of the learners hence why a transmission approach is fruitless. On the other hand, teachers come into the classroom with their own construction and conceptions of subject content, and according to Patrick 1988, are not neutral. Therefore, a teachers understanding can colour the students understanding, and together, Patrick, 1998 and Marton and Booth (1997) suggested that some teachers moulded the students construction of a concept to align with their concept interpretation. Ellisowths review concludes that the form of understanding impressed onto students is largely dependent on the teachers personal interpretation of the subject content. Therefore, although the constructivist theory assumes that the construction of understanding is the product of the learners interpretation exclusively, the constructivist theory does not account for the interplay between teachers and learners comprehension. Importantly, to help progressive learning and avoid developing misconceptions, teachers need to provide a clear focus and goals, with explicit learning objectives, which are rooted within pupils existing knowledge. The clear objectives allow students to construct their ideas using current knowledge and understand the overarching direction and progression oftheir learning. Activating prior knowledge is important to elicit pre-knowledge, allowing teachers to decipher the conceptual frameworks they are operating within. Teachers need to highlight the links between students existing knowledge and the new subject knowledge, to help the learner form bridges and facilitate their mental construction and cognitive processes (REF). By forming these links, students can activate and recall their pre-existing knowledge, and use this foundation to build and integrate new concepts. Teachers should encourage students to relate new knowledge to current knowledge and external experiences, allowing the new subject content to become embedded within the existing knowledge structures, contributing to or amending to the students schema. Since learning constructively is based on the addition of new content to current knowledge, the learner must have sufficient levels of understanding before new content can be used to construct more complex meaning and progress. Teachers and educators need to consider that new content cannot be built up until the foundations, such as current knowledge, is secured. To accommodate these pre-requisites of learning, the individuals knowledge needs to be continually assessed. As a regular classroom practice, formative assessment could be used as a regular approach to assess existing and new understanding, before moving to the next lesson. Formative assessment is a regular, informal mode of assessment, allowing teachers to monitor students progress, gain an appreciation of what has been learnt and adapt their teaching practices to optimise further learning (Black and Wiliam, 1998). Accordingly, given that learning is an active and evolving processes, formative assessment can be used by teachers to assess, monitor, challenge unclear perspectives and adapt classroom practices to accommodate the constructivist principles of learning. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that constructivist approaches to learning favour the use of formative assessment and may prompt its use in the classrooms, which Lamon, 2001 reports as being more valuable. Since formative assessment alone is associated with learning gains, (Black and Wiliam 1998), learning is positively influenced indirectly via adopting teaching strategies which are aligned to learning constructively. Formative assessment may be undertaken through questioning, teacher and pupil discussion, peer assessment and interaction with peers. Formative assessment will also identify pupils individual learning needs, supporting teachers conduct in differentiation to assure pupils are moving forward, across their ZPD and optimise learning gains. Formative assessment can be achieved in the classroom, through discussion, questioning, peer assessment, self-assessment and feedback. However, with behaviourism, the opportunities for feedback are confined to only whether the response desired is correct or not. There is little scope for learning, or how to improve in order to meet the desired response. Therefore, under behaviourist approaches, feedback cannot be used for learning purposes, therefore opportunities for assessment for learning, which have shown to enhance learning, may not be fruitful. Consequently, limited feedback combined with the objective outcomes of behaviourist approaches mean that individual student needs are not necessarily part of the formulae when considering teaching strategies and subject content. The need to consider individual needs is undeniable, therefore such constraints of feedback extent presents a multitude of problems to the teaching and learning of students. When constructing new concepts and developing understanding, reviewing and reflecting on what has already been learnt also helps to establish and secure students previous knowledge. In addition, by asking what students understand before embarking on a new concept would help students form links between new and previous knowledge (Fulton). This reviewing could be done as a starter, but also plays a role at the end of the lesson, forming a plenary. Teachers should consider, incorporate and plan for well managed plenary to consolidate knowledge. Time to reflect upon what has been undertaken, the processes and the content gives the opportunity for internalisation and for a deeper level of understanding to be developed. Similarly, learning is most effective when learners become engaged, which means that teachers need to adopt an active approach to learning and involve engaging tasks to promote learning in the classroom. Learning using authentic tasks, which allow pupils to relate to their own experience inside and outside the classroom (Selinger, 2001) increases the probability of engagement with the task and supports findings that learning in a familiar context is most effective. Authentic tasks are likely to hold the attention and interest of children, and lead to a deeper level of engagement than with non-authentic or less authentic tasks (Fulton). Favourably, the constructivist principles match those fundamentals associated with effective learning. This active perspective of constructive learning (Phillips, 1995) is often contrasted with behaviourist stimulus-response relationship, which has been defined as a passive view in learning. However, reading and listening are included within this constructive approach to teaching, which could be argued to be more passive approaches. Whilst this suggests that all cognition is active, to talking and writing, listening and reading are relatively passive. Traditionalists do not deny the importance of dialogue, and this may be utilised in questioning and answering, it is more that behaviourists place greater emphasis on knowledge and on the teacher as being knowledgeable, rather than learners and their existing knowledge (Fox). A balance is needed between emphasis on the teachers and learners, since too much emphasis on either part can lead to prescriptions for teaching which may ignore the students needs or dismiss the teachers as a significant resource of knowledge. An active learning approach can be achieved by encouraging students to explore concepts and ideas, and to follow their instincts (Wray and Lewis, 1997). Given that exploration can promote sequential development of ideas, it is likely to assist in the construction of new knowledge; the roots to constructivism. Classroom practice could be based on a discovery-based approach Huitt, 2004;, where students can find answers out for themselves, answer their own questions through experimenting with new ideas and discuss their beliefs and thinking patterns with their peers. Importantly, engaging with each other reflects social interactions, which can be a vehicle to develop understanding using social interaction. Unlike behaviourist approaches where the teacher is the primary resources of knowledge and is influenced by their interests and perspective; knowledge construction offers the opportunity of learning to become dynamic and varied, opposed to being static and prescribed (Sudizna). The use of resources promotes more interactive learning and interest, which are both shown to positively influence learning. Behaviourist approaches have been criticised for not addressing this dynamic nature of learning as its theory assumes a static and standardised view of knowledge learning. Supported by Winn 1990, student knowledge is dynamic and changes, that is knowledge and skills are different before learning to after instruction, and behaviourism does not take this into account. In addition, behaviourism theory does not appreciate that students come into classrooms with prior knowledge. Conversely, the constructivist theory acknowledges that pre-existing knowledge is requisite of learning and that students enter classrooms with pre-conceptions, knowledge and beliefs which they deploy in constructing new understanding. (Jones, Carter, Rua, 1999) As already discussed, scaffolding is crucial for the learner to pass through their zone of proximal development, and can be undertaken by the teacher. Scaffolding can be practiced in the classroom in many ways, and teachers need to appreciate that this is fundamental to the educational progression of students and how this may be achieved. Support materials need to be widely available, such as a writing frame to support a particular style of prose, or a list of words to help in the process of completing an exercise, designed to assist understanding The provision of practical apparatus, especially in science, may help to explain the solution to a problem and is an engaging approach. Students can evidence reality and attach a sense of perspective and reality to their learning. Given the exploratory nature of constructivism, classroom practice needs to be supportive and generate an environment where the student feels safe to ask for help and comfortable in approaching the teacher. The teacher must be aware of the different supportive needs of the class, and meet these through differentiation and allowing time for class discussion, misconceptions and any lack of understanding. To help the teacher identify those who need more support than others, formative assessment can be incorporated to highlight the students individual needs that need to be addressed. Ultimately, this will allow tasks to be designed and geared towards the individuals learning ability. Unlike, behaviourism theories, constructivist theory accounts for the role of social learning and potential of interaction and recognises the importance of social interaction (Phillips, 1995). Incorporating social interaction opportunities, using language as a medium to construct ideas in groups of varying sizes, both with and without the teacher are encouraged and popular in classroom practice today (Jones and Brader-anjerie, 2002). Dialouge is proposed to constitue a crucial component of the constructivism paradigm ((Greeno et al. 1996; (Steffe and Gale 1995).Loyens, 2008. Discussion is fundamental and can be used through augmenting, debating, discussing concepts, teacher questioning and pupils presenting. Teachers should encourage students to work collaboratively, in pairs or small groups, and allow them to help each other and construct their own meaning in their own words of a concept. Dialogue with others allows additional and alternative perspectives to be taken into account when developing personal conclusions. Different knowledge, points of view and understanding can be given and considered before moving on. Teachers should listen to pupils, and use their words for explaining concepts and draw on other opinions of class members. Constructivist theory also takes into account that learning is contextual. Evidence suggests that learning occurs in real-life contexts and learning is actually linked to a context, as deduced by Macleod and Goldby 2003. Children working with new ideas in a familiar content are more likely to engage with the ideas, than if the same ideas were present in an alien context. Therefore teachers should strive to include more authentic tasks and set learning concepts which are aligned with students familiar contexts. If a learning activity falls beyond the cultural understanding of the learning, then learning is likely to be less successful than if it had been situated in a more familiar setting. .Meaningful contexts for learning are very important; however, what is meaningful for a teacher is not necessarily meaningful for the student. The association between the concept of learning being situated and the need for authentic learning tasks is evidence (McFarlane, 1997). However, the recommended approach to situation learning in meaningful contexts (e.g. Lave Wenger, 1991) has been argued against. Walkerdine, 1988, for example argued that if school learning became situated solely within the lived world of daily experiences, the opportunities for abstract reasoning and reflective activity, which are all constituents of constructivism, would become limited and sacrificed, whilst confining students to their local xxxxxxx? The exactness of the Piaget stage of development has been criticised, that is to say children may pass through the stage, but it is not clear that they will pass through the stages at specific ages, however, as a developmental trail, this theory is useful in teaching practices. Piagets stage developmental theory offers guidance covering the level of complexity that may be expected in a childs thought processes at approximate stages in their development. Whilst Piagets developmental stage theory influences principally primary school teaching practices, given the ages this theory is related to, the appreciation and awareness that c

Briefly Outline a Selection of Victorian Values

This essay is going to briefly outline a section of Victoria values such as separate spheres, religion and family. Outside the family sphere, one had to strive for self-improvement and industry in ones working life, and developed nations. The main focus of this essay is going to be on fallen woman. In the Victorian era women were seen as pure and clean because of this view, their bodies were seen as temples which should not be adorned with jewellery. A woman should be reminded that marrying she gives up many advantages.A few artists such as William Holman Hunt and Augustus Leopold Egg and many more portrayed these Victorian values through narrative artwork and this essay is going to discuss a few of these artist’s paintings such as The Awakening Conscience and Past and Present. The role of women was to have children and tend to the house in contrast to men, according to the concept of Victorian masculinity. If they didn’t achieve this the their husbands would have mistr esses outside their marriage. Decorating the home and wearing fine dresses became a way for women to express themselves.Religion went through it's changes as Victorian's lost interest in God. [Patterson 2007 online] However, Great Revivals would sweep across the countries of the world changing the lives of many. The separate spheres framework holds that men possessed the capacity for reason, action, aggression, independence, and self-interest thus belonging to the public sphere. Women inhabited a separate, private sphere, one suitable for the so called inherent qualities of femininity: emotion, passivity, submission, dependence, and selflessness, all derived, it was claimed insistently, form women’s sexual and reproductive organization. Patterson 2007 online]In reality women held an important position as wives since they took care of the household, any servants, helped with their husband’s work, and managed the finances, however from the male’s point of view, wo men were nothing more than overly emotional and mindless creatures ruled by their sexuality Mary Wollstonecraft penned her anger at the unfair and unjust inequality that where imposed upon women by a vocal male majority in an attempt to redress this balance.A women's role in life in the nineteenth century was decidedly placed within a male context; both sexes were to be seen acting within different realms with the men occupying what was to be known as the public sphere whilst the women were to be found in the domestic sphere [Gordon Marsden 1955]. Perhaps this splitting of realms, within the working and lower middling classes at least, into their respective roles was by-product of increasing industrialisation and its resultant hazards such as long working hours and poor working conditions imposed upon the family unit.The majority of women did not have the option not to marry: it was simply a necessity for survival. Because society prevented women from making their own living, there was an inescapable dependence upon men’s income; Barred by law and custom from entering trades and professions by which they could support themselves, and restricted in the possession of property, woman had only one means of livelihood, that of marriage her [Gordon Marsden 1955].Therefore, no matter what the women desired, most were predestined to become wives due to their economic reliance on men. Secondly, to be even considered as a potential wife, women had to be not only virgins, but were expected to remain innocent and â€Å"free from any thought of love or sexuality† until after they had received a proposal The fallen woman was quite a theme for the Pre-Raphaelites. In this painting, The Awakening Conscience, we see a mistress rising from the seat of her lover, seemingly stricken with the realization of what her life has become.The Awakening Conscience, painted by William Holman Hunt, is filled with symbolism: a cat crouches under the table devouring a dead bird, the woman’s hands are adorned with rings on every finger except where a wedding ring would be, and on the floor we see unraveling wool. The model in this painting is Annie Miller, who Holman Hunt â€Å"rescued from obscurity†. He was engaged to her and launched a campaign to better her [Gordon Marsden 1955]. As a women, then ,the first thing of importance is to be content, to be inferior to men, inferior in mental power, in the same proportion that you are inferior in bodily strength.Ruskin's defence of the Awakening Conscience in his letter to the Times helps to subvert the idea of women being dependent upon men; he refers to the model repeatedly as the ‘poor' ‘lost' girl. He victimises her and renders her as virtually helpless as she ‘starts up with agony', her ‘eyes filled with tears of ancient days’. Ruskin attempts to address the composition's power and immediacy from which ‘there is not a single object in all the room– †¦ but it becomes tragically if rightly read’[Hollis,P 1979]. He concludes that Hunt’s work challenges its contemporaries and that ‘there will not be found one powerful as this to meet †¦ he moral evil of the age†¦ to waken the mercy the cruel thoughtlessness of youth, and to subdue the severalties of judgement into the sanctity of compassion[Rutherford online n. d]. Hunt’s the Awakening Conscience, in this context may be seen as a form of morality text. The work was a direct outgrowth of mid-Victorian society which believed that prostitution posed an inherent threat to the stability of the middle-classes as prostitution encompassed and symbolised the worries of a newly industrialised society which could lead to social instability and perhaps even to a complete social breakdown.It was believed that he slide into prostitution was the end of a more general moral breakdown in one's life which was believed to stem from the act of seduction, in 1 840. William Tait in Magdalism, defined a woman's seduction as an ‘act of corrupting tempting, or enticing females from a life of chastity, by money of false promises'. The 1850 Westminster Review wrote that ‘women's desires scarcely ever lead to their fall; for the desire scarcely exists in a definite form until they have fallen; it may therefore be seen that the ideal women becomes de-sexed in her search for moral virtue [Rutherford online n. ]. William Holman Hunt's The Awakening Conscience represents not only a contemporary life subject of a fallen Magdalene but can be loosely interpreted as an example of portraiture by Pointon's definition in which we can see that the woman became as symbolically objectified as her image. In contrast Augustus Leopold Egg’s painting, known as Past and Present Nos. 1–3, (1858), is a triptych in the genre of narrative painting. The subject is the ‘fallen woman’ and together the three paintings depict an entir e scenario from discovery and outcast to the moments before the woman’s final demise.One picture shows the children alone in the home; the other picture shows their mother living under the Adelphi Terrace arches in London. The paintings â€Å"illustrate the tensions in Victorian culture between morality and sexuality†. Egg's â€Å"moral narrative on social issues†[ Patterson 2007 online ] was successful in drawing public attention to the need to address gender roles and their consequences such as divorce. The sad woman in the third picture, most likely contemplating suicide, is a result of legislation that allows a man to divorce his wife without compensation for adultery [Patterson 2007 online].Prostitution, was legal during the Victorian era, seemed to embody the second of the two categories of women present in Victorian society: the first was the pure wife and mother, the angel in the house; the other was the depraved and sexually-crazed prostitute. â€Å"Pr ostitution was a product of middle-class society and only socialism, it was claimed ,could put an end to the evil†[Nead L 1988]. However because wives and mothers were not truly respected, my belief is that prostitution reflected what men really considered all women to be: whores for the gratification of their sexual desires.And indeed in Victorian England a large number of women were prostitutes: â€Å"In a society that forced women into a position of economic dependence upon men. In conclusion men’s and society’s consistent definition of women’s roles according to their separate spheres and the reproductive system can also be seen through what today we would consider the ‘weird’ sexual values of Victorians. The issue of adultery was also skewed to favour men. While a wife’s adultery was sufficient cause to end a marriage, a woman could divorce her husband only if his adultery had been compounded by another matrimonial offence, such a s cruelty or desertion.Referencing List: Branes Lucy. (2007). Narrative Painting? Egg's Triptych And The Art of Persuasion. Available: http://www. victorianweb. org/painting/egg/paintings/barnes2. html Last accessed 29 May 2012. Hollis P ( 1979). The women's movement. London: George Allen & Unwin. 6-15. John A (1986). Unequal Opportunities Women's Employment in England. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 45-261. Lewis J (1986). Women's Experience of Home and Family. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 123-249. Lynda Nead,1988,The Prostitution and Social Chaos,Blackwell Myths of sexuality Marsden,G (1995).Personalities and Perspectives in the Nineteenth Century Society. London: Longman. 3-11. Rutherford. A,A Dramatic Reading of Augustus Leopold Egg Untitled Triptych Available online http://www. tate. org. uk/research/tateresearch/tatepapers/07spring/rutherford. htm [accesses 22 March 2012] Sigsworth M,E (1988). In search of Victorian Values. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 89-100. Patterson,C. ( 2007). Men, Divorce And Custody. Available: http://menstuff. org/issues/byissue/divorcecustodygeneral. html Last accessed 29.

Personality Theorists Bandura and Maslow

Personality is a fascinating subject to study, because every person has a personality that is unique and complex. Personality theorists spend their time studying the reasons why people act the way they do. Are their innate processes that ensure a person will react to a situation differently if he is hungry? How will two different people behave if they both witness the same automobile crash?How behavior is affected and determined has been studied for years, and there are many different theories. Two theorists who have contributed significantly to this field of study are Bandura and Maslow.Bandura, like all behaviorists, was primarily interested in the stimulus-response branch of psychology. Having studied Skinner’s approach to Behaviorism, Bandura did agree that external forces contributed to behaviors. He believed environmental situations and reinforcers lead to certain behaviors. But Bandura also set out to answer some problems he found with Skinner’s theory. As Wagner (2009) states, even in his earliest work, Bandura argued that believing behavior could only be caused by a stimulus-response cycle was too simplistic.His studies led him to believe that behavior was not only a reaction to environmental stimuli as Skinner had proposed, but could also be learned from watching a model perform the behavior that could be copied. He also believed that learning could be cognitive. One of the most significant observations Bandura made during his studies was that while the environment did cause behaviors, behaviors could also create an environment. This phenomenon he called reciprocal determinism: The world and a person’s behavior cause each other.Bandura also believed that self-efficacy contributed to behavior. A person’s internal need to attain goals could cause them to behave in a way that ensured them success. Due to his research, Bandura argued that external and internal factors affected behavior. People can choose to act a certain way, o r the environment can cause them to act a certain way. Another theorist who made significant contributions to personality and behavior theory was Maslow. His most significant theory was his idea of a hierarchy of human needs.At the most basic level, humans have intrinsic needs, such as food and shelter, and the feeling of safety. Internal factors such as being hungry and the ability to breathe properly contribute to outward behaviors. Lemer (2000) summarized Maslow’s ideas into a practical application, by stating that, with children, adults should address the higher level needs for safety, security and knowledge only after the most primitive biological needs are met. Clearly, internal needs factor into behavior.As a people move up the hierarchy however, external factors begin to play a much larger role in behavior choice. Concepts such as morality, respect, and self-esteem are influenced by external factors such as societal demands and personal interactions. Maslow, like Band ura, believed that both internal and external factors contributed to behaviors. People behave certain ways at certain times due to a myriad of factors. Both of these theorists make powerful cases for the idea that behavior is both intrinsically and externally motivated. The case for internal motivation is solid.There are times when people choose to behave in a certain manner due to a need for respect, to fulfill a perceived role, or to attain a goal. Their behavior during those times is due to an internal desire for something. However, there are other times when environmental factors also cause behavior. A person may be trying to act a certain way, but a situation may arise that causes them to change the course of their behavior. It is also true that people can learn through simple observation, and this has to be caused by both internal and external factors.The environment and the situation the person is watching is shaping their behavior. But it also the internal need to duplicate the behavior of the other person that causes them to watch and learn. Both Bandura and Maslow believed that behavior was both internally and externally motivated. References Wagner, K. V. (2009). Albert Bandura biography. Retrieved May 10, 2009 from http://psychology. about. com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_bandura. htmfrom Lemer, P. S. (2000). Treat needs, not behavior: Maslow for the millennium. New Developments, 6(2), 23-26.

Things Fall Apart Colonialism Essay - 1267 Words

Colonialism is the policy or practice of taking over a country and changing it economically. This relates to the book Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, because the book itself is based off of colonialism and different types of cultures and people. I agree that colonialism strips the person of their cultures and soul. â€Å"By the late nineteenth century, Europe was engaged in â€Å"the scramble for Africa,† a competitive effort to colonize the continent and gain control of its natural resources. In 1884, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck convened a conference in Berlin where European diplomats divided Africa among themselves. No African representatives were present. By 1900, almost all of Africa was under European control. The colonial powers†¦show more content†¦There are two ways this condition may be terminated: the area may be freed of the control of the colonial power by allowing it to become an independent nation, or if the area is absorbed into the borders of the controlling nation† (Edward M). Colonialism can only be understood in two ways, wrong or right. In some ways colonialism is helpful, in other ways it is the complete opposite and almost completely insane. Okonkwo thought it was completely wrong and that he should go to war with the Europeans for what they were doing. What they Europeans were doing was inhumane and just wrong to Okonkwo. He was so dedicated to his culture that he was willing to fight for his right to live his life dedicating everything he did to his tribe and himself. As of people in today’s society, some may fight for what they want in life, others will sit around and wait for it to be handed to them. In Okonkwo’s case, he had to fight for what he wanted. Okonkwo knew that if he had converted to christianity and abandoned his tribe that he would regret it and be hated even more. It is no secrete that Okonkwo wanted to live up to one thing, to not be a failure like his father. Okonkwo wanted to work hard his whole life and always win o r be extraordinary at everything he did. In the end of the book, things really did fall apart. Okonkwo killed himself because he would rather be dead than live a life he wanted to represent.Show MoreRelatedThings Fall Apart And Heart Of Darkness Analysis910 Words   |  4 PagesCompare Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart with Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness In everyday life, we are always comparing, even subconsciously with even knowing it. When we compare things, we look at what the similarities are in said items such as a popular brand or a generic one. Comparing things such as two literary works, Things Fall Apart, by Chinua Achebe, and, Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad, both have a lot of similarities that we will look at. In Things Fall Apart, it is about a man namedRead MoreThings Fall Apart By Chinua Achebe And William Shakespeare s The Tempest1417 Words   |  6 PagesRoughly based on personal encounters Joseph Conrad uses Heart of Darkness to comment on the negative aspects of colonialism. Colonialism by definition is, â€Å"the policy and practice of a power in extending control over weaker peoples or areas.† In the novel Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe and William Shakespeare’s play The Tempest, colonialism plays a significant role in the break down of humans. The conquerors in both stories disregard the natives believing that they are working towards the greaterRead MoreImperialism In The 19Th Century Resulted In European Countries1726 Words   |  7 PagesWhen Chinua Achebe published Things fall apart in 1958, a novel criticizing the European aspects of imperialism, his aspiration was to teach readers that â€Å"their past-with all its imperfections-was not one long night o f savagery from which the first Europeans acting on God’s behalf delivered them†(Chinua Achebe on the Role of the African Writer, 1964). Chinua Achebe helped change the western perception of African culture by using the characters and story of Things Fall Apart to give readers a differentRead MoreNegative Effects Of Colonization Essay1217 Words   |  5 Pagesgovernment. Many of the places colonized by Spain and Portugal were left helpless like a child with no mother. The effect of the portuguese and spanish colonizations left the colonies discouraged from becoming economically self-sufficient. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe is a book set in the Lower Niger at the turn of the 19th century. The book is about the tragic downfall of the protagonist Okonkwo and the Igbo culture due to the colonization and europeanization of the missionaries. While heRead MoreThe Silent Pool, The Tell Tale Heart, And Things Fall Apart965 Words   |  4 Pagesoutside conflict. I will be explaining these relationships from the texts of Gooboora, The Silent Pool, The Tell-Tale Heart, and Things Fall Apart. Gooboora, The Silent Pool deals with the relationship of the Aboriginal people of Australia and colonialization, while The Tell-Tale Heart deals with an outsider’s effect on the main character’s subconscious. Things Fall Apart, however, is a mixture of both conflicts that were mentioned. Each of the three texts show how the outside negatively effects theRead MoreThings Falll Apart by Chinua Achebe1082 Words   |  4 PagesThings Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe is a story that port rays the tensions between the white Colonial Government and native-born people of Umuofia. Okonkwo, the main character, and a great village man is highly respected in the Igbo tribe of Umuofia. Although, Okonkwo is highly respected by the Igbo people, they are fearful of him because of his violent anger. When the Europeans arrived in Umuofia, they brought with them a new religion: Christianity. The Westerners changed Umuofia, destroyed traditionRead MoreThings Fall Apart Essay2440 Words   |  10 PagesThings Fall Apart: A Critical Analysis Things Fall Apart (1958) is a fictional novel by Chinua Achebe that examines the life the Igbo tribe living in a rural village called Umuofia in Nigeria during the early 19th century. The central values of the novel revolve around status, virtues, power, and traditions that often determine the futures and present of the characters in the Achebe story. The novel shows the life of the protagonist Okonkwo and his family, village, and Igbo culture and theRead MoreImapct of Colonialism on Africa889 Words   |  4 PagesIMPACT OF COLONIALISM ON AFRICA In this view of the circumstances that existed during history in regards to colonial Africa. I venture to examine how colonialism is viewed, introducing you to a variety of texts which expose you to different views and debates about what Africa may well have been like today, had the colonization never taken place. The African resistance to colonialism put another perspective on the colonization of Africa by the Europeans and the Western influence Africa faced.Read MorePost-Colonial View on Things Fall Apart Essay1771 Words   |  8 Pagesin Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) The desire to conquer land that was previously unexplored has existed throughout history. This desire forced many indigenous societies, who were usually dominated technologically, to adapt to the teachings and overall system of the ‘superior’ conqueror nation with destruction as the only alternative. This causes a major impact on how a certain society functions, even after seeking independence from the foreigners. The rise and fall of indigenous societiesRead MoreThe Book Things Fall Apart Is One Of Africa’S Most Significant1601 Words   |  7 PagesThe book Things Fall Apart is one of Africa’s most significant works of literature. Because of its unique spin on European colonialism from an African tribesman’s perspective and its eloquent use of Igbo vocabulary, the volume continually draws in readers from various backgrounds and locations. Attention to detail and foreshadowing are common throughout the book; zeroing in on certain motifs and themes r elating to African culture. One motif examined throughout the novel is chi. Author Chinua Achebe

Abortion Is Not Justifiable - 855 Words

Abortion Every human being is a person. Every person has the right of life here on Earth. Abortion kills an innocent human being. Abortion by definition means the deliberate termination of a human being. Deliberate by definition means intentional. Abortion is the killing of innocent people who have no say in the ending of their life. Why are 42 million human beings deliberately killed worldwide each year? How is this be justified? It’s not justifiable! That baby feels the pain of the abortion. That human being is having it’s limbs tore off its own body and can feel every bit of it. The baby feels both psychological and real physical, organic pain. Let that sink in. Whether or not abortion is a painful experience to the unborn child being aborted, the child is left no less dead as a result of the carrier s choice. Poverty, rape, disabilities, or â€Å"unwantedness† does not justify abortion! If someone s right to life truly were established or removed based simply on their wantedness, what would that mean for those in foster care or for the homeless? When it comes to abortion, there is no shortage of What if...? s. Just when it seems the injustice of abortion has been firmly established, you ll hear things like: What if the woman was raped?, What if she can t afford a child?, or What if the baby is deformed? Even if the biological parents want nothing to do with their offspring, there are families all over the nation waiting desperately to adopt a baby, familiesShow MoreRelatedIs Abortion Justifiable In Cases Of Rape Or Incest?1496 Words   |  6 PagesAbortion is a topic that people love to argue. It is super easy to throw emotions into the argument because many people feel so strongly about it. People argue that abortion is either a good solution or a bad choice by the mother. However, many of the women who choose to have an abortion feel like it is their only choice. Finding out you are pregnant can be profoundly scary. Especially if the pregnancy is unplanned, or the mother is a victim of rape. It is assumed that most women who have beenRead MoreThe Argument Of Defending Abortion850 Words   |  4 PagesDefending abortion is always controversial. But, in some circumstances it can be justified. In the case of Clare Macwurter, her mental state questions if abortion is permissible. Judith Thomson’s article â€Å"A Defense of Abortion† argues analogies defending her reasoning for justifiable abortion. In some cases, Thomson reasons that abortion is sometimes justifiable. Munson states, â€Å"When the reasons for having an abortion are trivial, then abortion is not legitimate. When the reasons are serious andRead MoreEssay on The Debate on Abortion1316 Words   |  6 PagesThe Debate on Abortion Part A Abortion is the premature expulsion of the foetus from the womb. You need to perform an operation to perform this. Abortion is now legal if two doctors agree on either of the following:  · That continuing the pregnancy means that there is a risk to the womans health. Or that of her existing children greater than if the pregnancy was terminated, allowing up to 24 weeks of pregnancy  · Or that continuing the pregnancy would involveRead MorePractical Ethics, By Peter Singer, The Modern Bioethical Philosopher1469 Words   |  6 Pagesweighted. According to Singer, a being’s interest should be weighted on the basis of the properties of the being and never on the basis of its affiliation to some abstract group (Peter n.p). The book studies a wide array of ethical issues including abortion, sex, race, ability, infanticide, political violence, the moral status of animals, obligation to assist others, overseas aid, species, embryo experimentation, and euthanasia (Review of Practical Ethics n.p). In assessing the lives which are pleasurableRead MoreAbortion Is The Act Of Ending The Human Life Of A Pregnant Woman1528 Words   |  7 PagesIn the following paragraphs we will see a basic discussion on six general ways that abortion is performed. We go into graphic detail explaining the procedures that are used in such manners. Here we determine within oursel ves if abortion is right, justifiable, non-justifiable, wrong, murder, manslaughter, or criminal negligence. Here we posed provoking questions that make one think on the issues that are relevant to living things. Here we are shown what one side is like and excusable for a fetusRead MoreEssay about Justification Of Violence970 Words   |  4 Pagesshould fight back and do what they have to do to save themselves before its too late. Other situations which call for justifiable violence, in my opinion, are robbery at gunpoint and any other type of unprovoked violence. Other than self-defense, I do not believe violence should be tolerated at any cost. Hitting children when they do something quot;wrongquot; is not justifiable. I believe that if a child does something their parents dont want them to do, they should be taught not to do it anymoreRead MoreIs Abortion Morally Wrong?1397 Words   |  6 PagesAbortion is viewed as an ethical issue worldwide as it has many debates which causes question: Should it be considered morally ethical or not? Should it be legal or illegal? Is it wrong, is it, right? In addition to multiple theories: Beliefs, Morality, Logic, Science and many others. Some argue that abortion is morally wrong because it has a right to life. While the opposing view believe that its morally correct because it holds no right to life. The text â€Å"The Deliberately Induced Abortion ofRead MoreAbortion Essay755 Words   |  4 PagesPersuasion Abortion The thought of killing a human being, to most people, is bone chilling and can stand the hair on the back of your neck on end. Taking some ones life is the end all, and even in the most justifiable circumstances, anyone would buckle and not go through with it. Abortion, on the other hand, is a justifiable murder do to the fact that if you don’t think you can take care of a child, why even go through the psychological changes to change your mind. Abortion is an operationRead MoreThe Abortion Debate Essay1544 Words   |  7 Pages No matter where you stand on the issue, abortion is a highly debated topic in today’s society. In this essay I will examine both sides of the abortion issue. I will begin with a brief overview of the abortion debate, to include the morality of the situation. Next I will discuss the Pro-Life argument. Lastly I will look at the Pro-Choice view. In the final analysis I will show how utilitarianism, altruism, and situational ethical views apply to abortion. Having in mind the extreme controversy surroundingRead MoreThe Need For Civil Disobedience Essay1287 Words   |  6 Pagescivil disobedience. He states that the act of civil disobedience can be justifiable. One of the acts that he talks about is the act of nonviolence. He holds that people like Stuart Brown, Rex Martin, and Michael Bayles admit to an act of civil disobedience; but states that nonviolent civil disobedience is justifiable and that violent civil disobedience is not justifiable. (Morreall, 1976) Abortion Civil Disobedience Abortion is it right or wrong? This has been a question that so many of us have

The Spirit, Ideals, And Values Of An Individual Can...

The manners, ideals, and values of an individual can express a great deal about the society in which they inhabit. These aspects represent society’s guiding principles, showing our motivations, influences, and attitudes that we hold and act with. During the Counter-Reformation period, the very foundations of the world began to collapse. Italy was thrashed by Barbarians and the church structure was challenged, creating difficulty in keeping certain manners, ideals, and values unchanged. In an attempt to codify these aspects of society, Giovanni Della Casa wrote Galateo. The lessons of Galateo offered comfort and useful advice to each man, allowing him to improve himself. Although little in Galateo is absolute, it reflects the personal experience and wisdom of Della Casa, along with fundamental values of society. It gives a historiography of the time period by offering guidance in achieving virtue and everything that comes along with it. Historians even compare the work of Della Casa to works of Machiavelli, stating that he is the product of the same traditions and that he provides formulas for success in a world based on his experiences. Translated with an introduction and notes by Konrad Eisenbichler and Kenneth R. Bartlett in 1990, the document’s translation offers insight into Della Casa’s society. By examining Della Casa’s belief in the importance of having good manners and virtue through specific examples, the imperative manners, ideals, and values of hisShow MoreRelatedMy Little Pony Art Of World War II1641 Words   |  7 Pagespositive one that promotes the same core values as the military does. Military Bronies see the correlation between ponies and the values they learn during their enlistment. They look past the divisions that separate individuals and purport to protect people regardless of who they are. They see the show as a moment of comfort and they understand that not everyone may agree with what Bronies represent, but they know that their service allows people the freedom to express themselves as they please. ThereRead MoreSan Pedro College Case Study1728 Words   |  7 Pagesstabilize its faculty and staff productivity. Turnover will only hurt the institution further and increase the gap of efficiency by introducing less skilled individuals (Bolman Deal, 2008). Improving compensation right now is not a suitable suggestion because the institution has limited sources of income and no money is available for raise. So, how can we retrieve the sense of productivity without any financial support? Build it Right from Scratch: Depending on hope and crafting no plans showRead MoreEcocriticism and Frankenstein1224 Words   |  5 Pagesexplores within Frankenstein, the principles and methodology of ecocriticism can be applied in many different ways. The interaction of humanity and nature is a concept explored throughout the novel, relating directly to a core tenet of ecocriticism, directly relat[ing] who we are as human beings to the environment (Bressler 231). Being as there is no single, dominant methodology (235) within ecocriticism, the extent to which we can use ecocriticism to interact with Frankenstein contains considerableRead MoreThe World State Society1261 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the story, the characters are presented in different social classes. In this World State, society isn t broken down into race, sex, or wealth, it deals with the intelligence level of a human being. Character by character is presented with a strong detachment from reality and the lack of free will they are given. In the World State society can only exist if everyone conforms and in order to get everyone to appeal to their ideology, the Director, and everyone uses a genetic fallacy to trick theRead MoreRestoration Comedy1489 Words   |  6 Pagesby the  Puritan  regime signalled a renaissance of  English drama. Restoration comedy is notorious for its  sexual  licentiousness, a quality encouraged by  Charles II  personally and by the  rakish  aristocratic  ethos  of his  court. English Drama witnessed great changes during Charles II reign. Women were introduced on stage for the first time and they were paid for the same, and theatre as a mode of entertainment and recreation was made fairly accessible to all. As a result of which, the theatre productionsRead MoreOn The Run By Alice Goffman1718 Words   |  7 Pagesresources does nothing to solve larger powers at play. Laws and documents may exist that describe an â€Å"equal† and â€Å"fair† soci ety, but without action, words seem to hold less value. The Declaration of Independence, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, are both documents meant to symbolize and create a culture with labeled ideals that want to eradicate certain forms of oppression. Unfortunately either all forms are not mentioned or no action plan exists to make such a document the law of land withoutRead MoreSociology and Other Sciences7090 Words   |  29 PagesSOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SCIENCES Sociology deals with society [people];how people interact, their culture, norms, values just like other social sciences like psychology, economics, psychology which also deal with people and how they behave, their mental processes. There is also a relationship between sociology and economics which is another social science. economics deals with the production of goods and services and how they are distributed to people just like sociology which also consider how theRead MoreThe Humanities And Its Impact On Education Essay1750 Words   |  7 Pagesconcern themselves with human beings and their culture or with analytic and critical methods of inquiry derived from an appreciation of human values and of the unique ability of the human spirit to express itself† (EncylopÃ"•dia Britannica). The humanities look at the humankind as a whole to understand various cultures, ideals, and values. This concept can be looked at throughout history, presently, and for the future. However, from an academic perspective, the humanities are areas of study suchRead MoreEssay on The Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov A review2659 Words   |  11 Pagesconsumed with guilt at his own cowardice. 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[1] The writer of this passage emphasises the distinction between writing of didactic purpose

Modernism and Interior Design for Modernity-myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theModernism and Interior Design for Modernity. Answer: Design can be art. Design can be aesthetics. Design is so simple, thats why it is so complicated[1]. The above quoted lines of Paul Rand give an overview of the importance which has traditionally been attached with the concept of design. It is significant to note that the human beings have an inherent desire within them to surround themselves with objects which are not only beautiful but also pleasing and soothing to the eyes as the famous romantic poet John Keats says in his poem Endymion, A THING of beauty is a joy forever: Its loveliness increases; it will never Pass into nothingness; but still will keep A bower quiet for us, and a sleep Full of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing. From our dark spirits.[2] However, it is significant to note that the concept of beauty is a very relative one especially in the context of the arts and aesthetics. Therefore, the concept of beauty and design has been undergoing rapid transformation ever since the tradition[3]. Thus, the thing which was appealing as well as enticing to a particular generation might not prove be equally pleasing to the next generation or any other generation for that matter[4]. This particular essay intends to analyze the particular an interior designing object namely chair in the context of the famous quote Industrialization, urbanization and an increased potential for social mobility the defining features of modernity encouraged ever larger numbers of people to regard the design of their interiors as an increasingly important aspect of their lives of Penny Sparke from her famous work The Modern Interior. The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century greatly modified not the way business was conducted at that particular period of time but also impacted the way the society as well as the culture of the contemporary world at that particular period of time[5]. It is significant to note that the technologies as well as the latest innovations which the Industrial Revolution made available to the people at that particular had an impact on the interior design and the architecture industry[6]. Furthermore, in the present times, the various contemporary art movements have also made a significant contribution towards the interior designing as well industry. The opinion of Penny Sparke is significant to note here Through the impact of shops like Habitat and IKEA, and of the countless glossy magazines, books and catalogues that focus on the concept of interior design, we have all become familiar with the idea of our homes and public interiors containing items of modern furniture and decor.promote d through exhibitions, retail contexts and the mass media, and that it rarely exists in an absolute form[7]. This change has generally been attributed to the advent of the Industrial Revolution and its related aspects like globalization, urbanization, social mobility and others. Chairs form an important part of almost all the households and have been in use since the ancient times. However, it is to be noted that in the present with the development of the genre of interior designing and architecture the purpose of the chairs in the households have undergone a drastic transformation[8]. It is significant to note that the various chairs which once used to serve the purpose of sitting objects are now increasingly used as objects of decoration and also for contributing to the aesthetic beauty of the household[9]. Furthermore, it is also significant to note that with the advent as well as the development in the field of abstract arts the primary purpose for the use of the various chairs have undergone a drastic transformation. The advancement in the technological field is generally attributed as one of the primary reasons for this particular change in the use of the chairs. This particular change can be traced back to the Victorian Age when with the advent of the various art movements the designing of the chairs also underwent a rapid change[10]. It is a reflection of this that the various Victorian chairs when observed through the lens of the present advancements in the fields of art will reveal rudimentary forms of the various present day art movements in caricature form[11]. However, in the present times, the interior designing experts like Mika Tajima take into consideration the current needs as well as the requirements of the customers and also the recent developments in the field of technology and innovations to render moving designs[12]. Furthermore, another significant thing to note is that the people have become much more sophisticated than they were a century ago or for that matter a few decades ago. It is a reflection of this that the chairs in the present times have undergone a drastic both in artistic design as well as the purpose for which they are being used. There are various factors which facilitated the shift from the Victorian era designs to the modernist designs. In the opinion of Penny Sparke the realities as well as concepts of the modern interior, whether in the hands of professional decorators and designers, or in those of its amateur inhabitants have necessitated the transformation which the interior designs have undergone in the present times[13]. Furthermore, her work provides a penetrating account of the shift from Victorian to modern style, and demonstrates that the easy transition to the modern interior so frequently portrayed is little more than a mythology. It is significant to note that in the light of these comments of Sparke the transformations undergone by the household object, namely, chairs begins to unravel itself[14]. Moreover, in the opinion of Margaret Fuller Art can only be truly art by presenting an adequate outward symbol of some fact in the interior life. Thus, in the present times the various household obje cts have coterminous with the character as well as the personality of the individuals who own that particular place. Therefore, in the present times, the various individuals like to procure chairs and other household objects as per their economic, cultural or educational status. Modernism is often considered to be one of the primary driving factors for the transformation which the art and the interior designing industry have experienced in the recent times. In the opinion of T.J. Clark articulated in his famous work Farewell to an Idea: Episodes from a History of Modernism, Modernism had two great wishes. It wanted its audience to be led toward a recognition of the social reality of the sign (away from the comforts of narrative and illusionism, was the claim); but equally it dreamed of turning the sign back to a bedrock of World/Nature/Sensation/Subjectivity which the to and fro of capitalism had all but destroyed. In the later part of the 20th the concept of modernism penetrated not only the genre of literature but of art as well and it is a reflection of this that the art industry experienced the transformation. The factor which most influenced the transformation of interior design industry was the uneasiness which was caused by the modern hectic and which finds its adequate portrayal in the book All That Is Solid Melts Into Air by Marshall Bernam I'm beginning to feel the drunkenness that this agitated, tumultuous life plunges you into. With such a multitude of objects passing before my eyes, I'm getting dizzy. Of all the things that strike me, there is none that holds my heart, yet all of them together disturb my feelings, so that I forget what I am and who I belong to[15]. Furthermore, the desire to use the modern day objects and also to take the help of the latest technology as well as innovations has been adequately captured in the words of the same author when he says that All fixed, fast-frozen relations, with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all newformed ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned, and men at last are forced to face ... the real conditions of their lives and their relations with their fellow men[16] . The Industrial Revolution entailed with itself the rise of the bourgeoisie and it was the rise of this particular which contributed in a significant manner to the further development of the concept of interior designing by their wish to decorate their households with the latest household products and goods[17]. Thus, the author comments that The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionizing the instruments of production, and with them the relations of production, and with them all the relations of society .... Constant revolutionizing of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social relations, everlasting uncertainty and agitation, distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones[18]. Furthermore, the remark of Nietzsche's articulated in his famous work Beyond Good and Evil (1882) are pertinent to observe in this particular context At these turning points in history there shows itself, juxtaposed and often entangled with one another, a magnificent, manifol d, jungle-like growing and striving, a sort of tropical tempo in rivalry of development, and an enormous destruction and self-destruction,.Again there is danger, the mother of morality-great danger-but this time displaced onto the individual, onto the nearest and dearest, onto the street, onto one's own child, one's own heart, one's own innermost secret recesses of wish and will[19]. Thus, it can be said that modernity formed one of the basic reasons for the transformation which the interior design underwent in the later part of the 20th century and also in the present times. The transformation underwent by the household object chair becomes totally logical when seen through the lens of the concept of modernism. It was the advent of the concept of modernism as well as the Industrial Revolution which necessitated the change undergone by the chairs as household objects[20]. Therefore, it is seen that in the present day, the chairs are no longer just a sitting object but a decorative object as well. Thus, the various individuals in the present times select as well as buy chairs which go along with the interior design as well as the decoration of their household[21]. It is significant to note that individuals in the present times more than concentrating on the comfort level of theirs focus on the artistic beauty of their homes[22]. To conclude, it becomes apparent that the genre of interior designing in the present times has undergone much transformation since its initiation in the traditional times. The advent of industrialization, globalization, social mobility and various others are significantly responsible for this particular transformation. Thus, the common household object chair in the present times is no longer just an object which is used for the purpose of relaxation but has become an important tool for the decoration of the interior of the household. This particular change has commonly been attributed to the advent of modernism and the various art movements which entailed it. References Alfoldy, Sandra, ed.Craft, Space and Interior Design, 1855? 005. Routledge, 2017. Berman, Marshall.All that is solid melts into air: The experience of modernity. Verso, 1983. Burrell, Gibson, and Robert Cooper. "Modernism, postmodernism and organizational analysis: an introduction." InFor Robert Cooper, pp. 149-175. Routledge, 2015. Carlton, Dennis W., and Jeffrey M. Perloff.Modern industrial organization. Pearson Higher Ed, 2015. Dodsworth, Simon, and Stephen Anderson.The Fundamentals of interior design. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015. Guilln, Mauro F. 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